Coded Language
Bedingfield, Sid. 2019. “The Journalism of Roy Wilkins and the Rise of Law-and-Order Rhetoric, 1964–1968.” Journalism History 45(3):250–69. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00947679.2019.1631082
This article is helping to set up the background of what Law and Order is. It looks at the first time in which politicians, the media, and police departments started to really talk about Law and Order. The rhetoric used helped usher in the period known as “The War on Drugs” which played a large role in the unequal balance of black people in jails currently.
Bunting, Thomas D. 2018. “Breaking Barriers and Coded Language.” Democratic Theory 5(1):62–80. doi: https://doi.org/10.3167/dt.2018.050105
The main theme of this article was how we can see coded language in baseball. It gives background on what language some people use to describe minorities. Certain phrases are left for specifically people of color and would never be used on a white person. This helps to continue the cycle of coded racism because of phrases particular to members of a minority community.
Hinds, Lyn. 2006. “Challenging Current Conceptions of Law and Order.” Theoretical Criminology 10(2):203–21. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362480606063139
This article looks at how the United States has changed its views on law and order over the course of its history. It notes how leaders have used the policy and term to target specific communities of color at a disproportionally higher level.
Lachmann, Richard. 2019. “Trump: Authoritarian, Just Another Neoliberal Republican, or Both?” Sociologia (89). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7458/SPP20198915753
This article looks at the Trump presidency and the policies he enacted over the course of his term. While the overall focus is looking at whether or not the policies broke with the establishment Republican party it still was able to focus on his rhetoric.
Campbell, Michael. 2011. “Politics, Prisons, and Law Enforcement: An Examination of the Emergence of “Law and Order’’ Politics in Texas.” Law & Society Review 45(3):631–65. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5893.2011.00446.x.
While this article focuses solely on Texas it can help set the basis for a larger conversation around Law and Order politics. It helps to understand how the rhetoric of Law and Order is actually played out once it gets into mainstream politics and governments start to implement the policies. This article will help to do that and show how once a politician decides to move forward with a certain type of policy it can disproportionately affect black and brown communities.
Political Parties
Anon. 2016. “Andrew Jackson: Campaigns and Elections | Miller Center.” Retrieved March 16, 2021 (https://millercenter.org/president/jackson/campaigns-and-elections).
This website gives a history of Andrew Jackson and the political parties around that time.
This article looks at the history of the Democratic-Republican Party.
Anon. n.d. “Election of 1864 | The Lincoln Financial Foundation Collection.” Retrieved March 16, 2021b (https://www.lincolncollection.org/collection/curated-groupings/category/election-of-1864/).
This article looks at the election of 1864 and the political parties and nature within that time period.
This article looks at the history of the Whig Party.
This article looks at the history of the Republican Party.
Ohiohistorycentral.org. 2021. Democratic Party – Ohio History Central. [online] Available at: <https://ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Democratic_Party>.
This article looks at the history of the Democratic Party
Ramos, Mitzi. n.d. “Federalists.” https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1184/federalists).
This article looks at the history of the Federalist Party.
This article gives a brief history of the Inauguration Ceremony and the changes that have occurred surrounding it.
Presidential Rhetoric
Çinar, Ipek, Susan Stokes, and Andres Uribe. 2020. “Presidential Rhetoric and Populism.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 50(2):240–63. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/psq.12656.
This article places certain politicians into groups based on how much they play into the populist strand of their party. While it can do that it also helps to show the history of populism, judging each president within the context of their time. The article also looks at anti-elitism and how presidents can be judged through that idea as well.
Cohen, Jeffrey E., and John A. Hamman. 2003. “The Polls: Can Presidential Rhetoric Affect the Public’s Economic Perceptions?” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33(2):408–22. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2003.tb00037.x
This study focuses on the different types of speeches that a President might give during their term and while they are on the campaign trail. They found that Presidential speeches are going to help approval ratings, especially in the period right after the speech, but over time can have little to no impact unless it is a speech about foreign policy. One of the biggest ideas that can be drawn from this article is how different types of speeches have different impacts. While the article talked about economic, foreign policy, etc. speeches it is not broken out from there on whether or not they spoke about race.
Druckman, James N., and Justin W. Holmes. 2004. “Does Presidential Rhetoric Matter? Priming and Presidential Approval.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 34(4):755–78. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00222.x
This article helps in setting up the background of what Law and Order is. It looks at the first time in which politicians, the media, and police departments started to really talk about Law and Order. This rhetoric that was used helped to usher in the period known as “The War on Drugs” which played a large role in the unequal balance of black people in jails currently.
Holian, David B. 2004. “He’s Stealing My Issues! Clinton’s Crime Rhetoric and the Dynamics of Issue Ownership.” Political Behavior 26(2):95–124. doi: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4151362
This study spoke on the Reagan-Clinton era of the Republican and Democratic parties and how each spoke about crime. This article looks at the phrase “tough on crime” which has become equal to talking about race in this century. The results section presents a point about how Clinton was able to “steal” the issue of crime away from the Republicans and make the Democratic party seem tough on crime.
Howell, Wayne. 2011. “Change and Continuity in Concession and Victory Speeches: Race, Gender, and Age in the Closing Statements of the 2008 Presidential Campaign – B. Wayne Howell, 2011.” Retrieved February 2, 2021 doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764211406082
“Change and Continuity in Concession and Victory Speeches: Race, Gender, and Age in the Closing Statements of the 2008 Presidential Campaign” focused on exactly that, how race, gender, and age played into the closing speeches of the campaign. They focused on the 2008 Presidential Campaign general election. It was set in the context of the historic nature of the campaign with both Obama and Palin’s candidacies. The author wanted to see how the two primary candidates, Obama and McCain, spoke about the three demographic characteristics through their closing speeches and some throughout the campaign. It took the speeches and searched for any mention of race, gender, or age. Within the results section, the study included specific quotes from the candidates that spoke onto those characteristics.
Lamont, Michèle, Bo Yun Park, and Elena Ayala‐Hurtado. 2017. “Trump’s Electoral Speeches and His Appeal to the American White Working Class.” The British Journal of Sociology 68(S1):S153–80. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12315.
This article took a qualitative analysis of 73 of Trump’s speeches looking for keywords that had to do with race and saw how many times he invoked those topics. They wanted to see what he did to increase turnout amongst the working-class white voters and how his rhetoric was a big factor in making that happen. Through the charts included you can see how many times he spoke about different racial groups as well as the working class.
Lim, Elvin T. 2002. “Five Trends in Presidential Rhetoric: An Analysis of Rhetoric from George Washington to Bill Clinton.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 32(2):328–66. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0360-4918.2002.00223.x
This article focuses on how Presidential rhetoric has changed throughout history. The authors split up the Presidents into several different categories, mainly pre, and post-Teddy Roosevelt. They found that the modern Presidents have to lead from the front and be “louder” in comparison to the early Presidents. It also showed that rhetoric now is more people-oriented and inclusive. This article can help show how political rhetoric has changed over time but also can show how to analyze the change in Presidential speech.
Teten, Ryan L. 2003. “Evolution of the Modern Rhetorical Presidency: Presidential Presentation and Development of the State of the Union Address.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33(2):333–46. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2003.tb00033.x
This article looks at the change in Presidential rhetoric but looking at it specifically in the State of the Union and how there are different eras of the speech. The research found trends that exist in the type of rhetoric used, length of speech, etc. I found this article set a good basis on the change in a different speech than the one that I will be studying but can show how over time both precedent and something in history can affect a Presidential speech.
Race
Alexander, M., 2010. The New Jim Crow. The New Press.
This book presents the idea that even though there are no longer the official Jim Crow Laws we still are functioning within a system of Jim Crow. The prison and incarceration system has been able to function as a new form of Jim Crow, targeting black and brown communities at a much higher rate.
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2019. “Toward a New Political Praxis for Trumpamerica: New Directions in Critical Race Theory.” American Behavioral Scientist 63(13):1776–88. doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219842614
This study looked at how the election of President Donald Trump was essentially the opening for the “racists” to come out again and make their voices heard. They base a lot of their study on critical race theory and looking at how his rhetoric was able to flare up feelings on race. It also takes time to show parallels between this period and the 80s with the War on Drugs.
Burke, Meghan A. 2017. “Racing Left and Right: Color-Blind Racism’s Dominance across the U.S. Political Spectrum.” The Sociological Quarterly. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/00380253.2017.1296335
This article touches on the idea of coded language, specifically bringing up “welfare handouts” and “get tough on crime.” It also talks about color blindness and how that allows for someone to seem like they are not racist but continue with the various actions that they have taken. The article focuses on the difference between the two extremes of both parties and compares how they have taken stances on race.
Love, Bettina L., and Brandelyn Tosolt. 2010. “Reality or Rhetoric? Barack Obama and Post-Racial America.” Race, Gender & Class 17(3/4):19–37. doi: https://www.jstor.org/stable/41674749
This article focuses on the state of race upon the election of Barack Obama. Its main focus is looking at how Critical Race Theory would look at the election of Obama and the societal impacts on the United States. It found that because of Obama’s rhetoric he was able to toe the line between being too black and not black enough, gaining enough support from minorities and whites while still capturing the black vote.
Miller, Joshua. 2019. “The Historical Presidency: The Rendition of Fugitive Slaves and the Development of the Law‐and‐Order President, 1790–1860.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 49(3):684–97. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/psq.12507.
This article touches on the concept of Law and Order talking specifically about how Presidents of the 19th century were able to focus on Law and Order, especially the Presidents around the civil war. This article, in conjunction with looking at the inauguration speeches of these Presidents, may be extremely helpful in pinpointing how a President speaks on race. This could be helping since it sets its study closer to the time in which the parties flipped and started to believe in different ideals.
Omi, Michael, and Howard Winant. 2014. Racial Formation in the United States. 3rd ed. London, England: Routledge.
This reading presents the theory of racial formation, talking about how white communities and society as a whole have created the concept of race. They presented the idea that society did this to create some type of caste system and the easiest way to do this was based on race.
Pryor, Elizabeth Stordeur. 2016. “The Etymology of Nigger: Resistance, Language, and the Politics of Freedom in the Antebellum North.” Journal of the Early Republic 36(2):203–45. doi: doi.org/10.1353/jer.2016.0028
This article focuses on rhetoric as well but mainly on the use of the n-word in the Anteblleum north. This article can show that even in the North there were still issues concerning the language used. Especially in this period when the North was more conservative and the South was more liberal. It is also a good point to show that the two political parties have since switched their main platform and base.
Roediger, David. 2019. “Historical Foundations of Race.” National Museum of African American History and Culture. (https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/historical-foundations-race).
This article helps to give a history of race within the United States and around the world.
The Sentencing Project. 2021. The Color of Justice: Racial and Ethnic Disparity in State Prisons | The Sentencing Project. [online] Available at: <https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/color-of-justice-racial-and-ethnic-disparity-in-state-prisons/#II.%20Overall%20Findings>.
This website helps to show how over-policing has occurred in communities of color. Their research shows that communities of color are often subjected to more policing than a majority white community.
Utley, Ebony, and Amy L. Heyse. 2009. “Barack Obama’s (Im)Perfect Union: An Analysis of the Strategic Successes and Failures in His Speech on Race.” Western Journal of Black Studies 33(3):153–63. doi: https://public.wsu.edu/~wjbs/vol333.html
This article looked at how different black politicians talked about their race during their elections, providing various theories behind talking about race and providing examples of those theories in practice. While basing itself in theory behind talking about race it focused mainly on Obama’s speech called “A More Perfect Union” which was a response to things his Pastor had said in the past. They found that Obama was able to stick with the post-racial form of talking about race and still gain support from a broad coalition of people.
States Rights
Tani, Karen M. 2015. “States’ Rights, Welfare Rights, and the Indian Problem: Negotiating Citizenship and Sovereignty, 1935-1954.” Law and History Review 33(1):1–40. doi: https://doi.org/10.1017/S073824801400056X
The article written by Tani talks about the ideas behind states’ rights and Native American tribes. They focus on the relationship between the state, federal and local governments, and Native American tribes and their land. This article helps to show how the phrase “states rights” can be coded language for race and racism.
